Historical conditions of human capital's formation in the higher education's non-state sector abroad.pdf Private education in most foreign countries is a national educational system's integral part. Private education, having a long history, demonstrates education high quality and standards in developed countries such as Great Britain, the USA, Japan, China, etc. The concept's essence of “private education” in different historical periods was interpreted in different ways. In certain periods, “private education” was understood as home education, since education for many centuries was inseparable from the clan life, and, consequently, the family. As such, a special institution of education did not exist; it originated at a later stage in the primitive society development. Today, most scholars interpret the concepts of “private education” and “private school” as identical, but it is necessary to separate these definitions, since “private education” is a form of education, and a private school is a non-state educational institution owned by individuals and various foundations. The non-state education sector's genesis showed that the school historical point as a special sphere of social activity is the era of Ancient East civilizations, the origin of which dates back to the 5th millennium BC. In the late Neolithic era, decomposition of primitive society's features began to appear in various parts of the world, and at the same time new social structures arose. In the most ancient states that replaced the archaic society, education and training was carried out mainly in the family [1]. Obtaining an education in ancient society meant not only the selection of an individual who acquired certain knowledge from among other tribe's members, but also a means for gaining a higher position in the community. Physical and labor training for the younger generation in ancient society was inseparable, connected with the elementary mental and moral education foundations. The accumulated methods of younger generation teaching the in a primitive society historically prepared those qualitative changes that took place in the future and which laid the foundation for the education system formation as such. In the growing division of labor context, when a person required a much larger amount of information, home education was not enough. All this created the preconditions for the subsequent emergence of specially organized education, which, in turn, acted as a powerful factor in the social progress of society. The history of private education origin abroad dates back to ancient times. The first Chinese schools arose in the 3rd millennium BC [2. P. 22]. Only the wealthy parent's offspring could receive education in these educational institutions, studying hieroglyphic writing. In the described historical period of time, hieroglyphic writing already took place, however, only a select few, mainly ministers of the church, owned it. Writing and reading skills were passed on to sons and grandchildren, and practically did not receive distribution in society. In China, in the second half of the first millennium BC, during the Qin emperors short reign (221-207 BC), a centralized state took shape [2]. Educational reforms carried out by state authorities contributed to the simplification of elementary literacy (writing hieroglyphs) and the centralization of China educational segment, uniting government and private educational institutions into a single system. Despite of public education intensive development in the Middle Ages in China, the upper class preferred private education over public education (home schooling or private school). The first schools in Ancient Egypt appear at about the same period as in Ancient China, emerging as a family institution [1]. Ancient Egyptian schools distinctive characteristic is a small number of students. School fees were high, so only boys who belonged to the families of officials, priests and wealthy citizens could attend the school. The girls were homeschooled. The training was individual in the essence; its duration depended on the student's efforts and abilities. At the education initial stage, children were taught elementary literacy, at the second stage, there was a differentiation in academic subjects depending on the education purpose: (humanitarian training, mathematical, economic activity). The learning process was monotonous and consisted of rewriting and memorizing standard texts, teachings, examples, etc. Despite the fact that education in Ancient Egypt was of a specialized nature, it was considered the key to a future successful career. © Tsiguleva O.V., Pozdeeva S.I., 2022 * The article is published in the authors' version. In ancient Greece, the first Athenian educational institutions (didascaleons), as well as in China, were private. The education's main goal in these educational institutions was bodily and moral development [2]. During the period under review, there were two types of schools - general education (musical) and private gymnastic schools for boys (palestra). In general education schools children were taught the art of reading, writing and counting, using abacus in the learning process. Learning to write and read was taught using the literal method (i.e. memorizing the alphabet, and then two-letter syllables, three-letter syllables, etc.). The private education formation in Rome dates back to the II century BC. In the ruling Roman estate (nobilet), which replaced the patricians, homeschooling with invited teachers (Greeks) dominated [2]. This tradition lasted throughout the Roman Empire entire period. However, only wealthy people could afford to invite teachers to their homes, and therefore Greek grammar teachers more and more often taught not at home, but in their own schools. Private were also trivial schools in which elementary education was given. In this type schools, there were various educational programs. In the II century. BC. a new type of private education appears in Rome, advanced schools (grammatical), also opened by Greek teachers. Older children, boys from 12 to 16 years old, studied in them. In these educational institutions, which are private in their status, they taught basic subjects (grammar and arithmetic). The main emphasis was placed on physical training and military exercises, which were carried out outside the classroom. It is nessesary to emphasize that teachers of specialized educational institutions (grammar) occupied a higher hierarchical position in comparison with teachers of elementary schools, could be in the public service and be paid by the state. Private education originated in the ancient world, when the society's need for elementary knowledge arose. Only wealthy and state people could afford to study in private schools, since a small number of people owned knowledge in the described historical period and knowledge was considered the lot of the elite. By the beginning of the Middle Ages in Europe, an extremely variegated picture existed in the education field on the former Roman Empire ruins. The new period's reporting point in the European countries history can be dated to 476, the year of Roman rule end. This time also coincides with the change in the legal relations system in European society (the feudal system is replacing the slave system) [2]. Religion, led by clergy, becomes the core and stronghold of feudal society. The church a priori becomes the cradle of knowledge, uniting various schools, workshops and libraries under its roof. The described historical events have left an imprint on the education system development the in Europe. According to most scholars, the Western European educational system is difficult to understand without considering Byzantine influence. For a long time in Europe, education was based on the study of classical languages: Latin and Greek. This teaching tradition, which came from the Byzantine Empire, existed in Western European countries until the 15th century [2]. The medieval education development is primarily associated with the church culture development in European countries. For example, in the IV-V centuries, when the Germanic tribes resettlement began, their tradition of military-community education became widespread in Europe, thereby influencing the knightly and monastic education system that was taking shape in the Middle Ages. Schools and educational centers were created within the walls of the monasteries, where future clergymen received both secular and military education. The private education origins in the British Isles date back to the 6th century beginning, when feudal society and the church as a stronghold of knowledge began to play a dominant role in the spread of education. Researcher S.V. Kordle in his work identifies three stages of the private education development in the UK. The author notes that non-state education intensive spread was influenced by religious, socio-economic, political and cultural preconditions [3]. Analyzing the first historical period of the private education formation and development in Great Britain (from the 5th to the 13th centuries), it can be noted that they are associated with the emergence of church and monastery schools. The first schools in the British Isles (cathedral schools at Canterbury (598) and York (635)) were owned by the church, as in many European states. The main reason for the private education emergence and development in Great Britain is the peculiarities of public administration in the period under review. As the genesis of the non-state sector of education formation abroad shows, in the Middle Ages, schools were opened mainly in church parishes and their creation coincides with the Christian chronology. For example, the oldest private school in Britain was opened in York. However, many English scholars consider the issue of the first private school in York controversial. According to their research, the first educational institution was created in the year of St. Augustine's Cathedral (598) founding and is today known as King's College in Canterbury [4]. Such educational institutions are a reflection of the politics of Roman influence. As the theoretical sources analysis on the research topic shows, a British education distinctive feature was that the schools were taught not by church ministers, despite the fact that the educational sphere was the clergy prerogative. The 11th century invasion of Britain by the Norman Duke William the Conqueror and his subsequent coronation did not negatively impact of private English education development. Educational institutions, as before, were in the clergymen hands and under their tireless control, but training was also carried out by secular persons. Intensive development of Europe private education takes place in the XI century. The main reason for this was the cities formation and trade relations development. In the cities where private schools were opened, they taught directly practical knowledge. The teachers of such schools were criticized by the monasteries for introducing fees, since knowledge was considered exclusively a gift from God. British educational institutions from the 11th to the 15th centuries. were aimed at training statesmen, clergy and warriors [1]. In the Britain educational system of the period described, the nobility idea, generosity and dedication prevailed, therefore, the upper class priority was learning to ride a horse, handling various types of weapons, hunting, i.e. everything a knight needs. But in addition to all this and in the name of this, a spiritual and moral order of norms of behavior reigned in educational institutions. The second period of private education development dates back to the 13th-18th centuries. This period is associated with the grammar schools emergence. Private education intensive development in England occurs at the end of the XIV c. The most famous of the private schools created during the Middle Ages: Winchester (1387) and Eton (1449). Schools were opened on various donations from individuals and state subsidies, but only the wealthy parents' offspring who could provide donations or pay for education could study in them. The practice of private education became widespread in Flanders and Italy in the second quarter of the 14th century, from where it spread to other countries. The schools were divided into public and private. It is known that all programs in schools were almost identical (both in public and private), teaching was conducted without students' gender separation, and women taught on an equal basis with men in these schools. However, it should be noted that it was with the private schools emergence that the idea arose about the children's gender division in the future. Most of the students in private schools, who were trained for commercial activity, after graduating from elementary private school, chose to continue their studies in commercial. There they were taught arithmetic, accounting, and rules of commercial correspondence, foreign languages and geography. A special place in the Western European education system in the Middle Ages was occupied by traditional schools for the aristocratic class, the so-called palace schools. The spread of the system of such educational institutions in the Middle Ages was typical for German and Italian cities: Meissen, Verona, Padua, Venice, Florence, etc. The private education development in the medieval period is closely associated with the cities emergence and trade development. During the early Middle Ages, the private education system, as well as public education, was under the church vigilant supervision, and it was the church that had the primary influence on the private education development in European states. Since the end of the 18th century, in most European countries, private educational institutions have been under strict supervision, verification and audit by government bodies. So, for example, in Prussia since 1794 legislation was in force, according to which all schools, including private ones, were subject to government control. It should be noted that even now private education in Germany is under state control, especially in matters of education quality. French private schools were constantly checked by the state inspection. And although the activities of private schools were guaranteed by the laws of 1850, 1867, 1880s, nevertheless, the state kept the private education development under control [1]. In contrast to Germany and France, in Fraternia, the adopted legislation, on the contrary, contributed to the private education sector productive development. It was this circumstance that contributed to the intensive development and stability of the private school positions. The non-state education functioning sector depended on material investments and donations from the public. The private school development contributed to the qualitative and quantitative composition of students in state educational institutions (downward). In the UK, the need to innovate in education has historically been shaped by the upper echelons as a response to the need for rapid industrial growth. The government saw the main direction of the educational system development in Great Britain in changing the education content. State control over the private sector of education in Great Britain was established only in the 19th century, but the transition to government public forms did not take place. Despite the transformations that have taken place in the UK education system over 600 years, private education has retained its high social status and remains in high demand. Summing up the above, it should be emphasized that during this period the church role in the educational segment, especially in the non-state sector, was dominant. Many private schools, workshops and libraries were controlled by the clergy. For example, religious subjects were taught in almost all English schools, although they were not included in the curriculum mandatory content. The private education sector stable position in England was explained by the minimal interference of the state in this activity sphere. The higher education development in Europe can be dated back to the late 12th - early 13th centuries, when the first universities appeared. The word “university” (from Latin “universities” means “integrity”, “totality”), that is, a corporation of teachers and students [1]. One of the first universities founded in Europe was the Bologna University (1088 AD). However, it should be noted that the world history of university education dates back to the Arabs, when a university was opened in Fez (Morocco), in 859. Following it, in 900, a university was opened in Scotland in Faifa, where they taught medicine and theology. Less than 100 years after the opening of the Bologna University in 1167, one of the oldest universities in the world, Oxford, began to operate. Following the high school opening in Oxford, universities are starting to open throughout Europe. Medieval universities' feature was that all subjects were taught in Latin, which ensured these autonomy educational institutions in making decisions on management and educational activities without the state and local authority's participation. It is the 12th century that is considered the beginning of academic mobility emergence, since, according to the rules of universities, an agreement with professors was concluded only for one year. Therefore, teachers wandered from one university to another. In the Middle Ages, university studies began with a junior faculty, where liberal arts (i.e. grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, etc.) were taught. After graduating from the junior faculty, it was necessary to enter the faculties of law, medicine, theology, philosophy (the next level of education). To obtain the university status, it was necessary to obtain the main medieval papal document (with a lead or gold) seal about its discovery. This document confirmed the university status and its direct subordination to the Pope. The powers of this higher educational institution were confirmed by special documents, which were valid only when signed by the reigning persons or by the pope. This document gave sovereignty and independence to the university, and also guaranteed: - autonomous management of the educational process - conferring academic degrees - exemption of students from military service - own judicial system. All subjects of this educational institution (faculty, students and administrative staff) were subordinate only to the rector of the university (elective position). As for higher education in Europe, it reached its greatest peak in the seventeenth century, especially in Western Europe. The reasons for such an intensive education development were the humanities and natural sciences integration, native language teaching, independence in the management and organization of the educational process in higher education, the opening of professionally oriented universities [5]. The private higher education development in some countries was formed later and dates back to the end of the 18th - early 19th centuries. In Germany there were several types of higher commercial educational institutions at the end of the XIX century. Higher education institutions' characteristic feature in Germany is legal independence, despite the fact that in reality they were part of classical universities. Commercial disciplines in these universities were taught by teachers from commercial educational institutions, and general education courses, such as history, Latin, philosophy, etc., were taught by university professors [5. P. 178]. Obviously, the main reason for this was financial savings, since some subjects were taught at the university or at the polytechnic institute. Outstanding examples of this type educational institution were the Higher Commercial School in Leipzig, established in April 1898. It was the first higher commercial educational institution opened in Germany. This commercial school characteristic feature of this commercial school was that it was founded on the basis of the Leipzig University. The institution was opened by agreement of the Leipzig Chamber of Commerce in conjunction with the university, with the Chamber of Commerce taking on financial responsibility for the university for a two-year period. Financial assistance to the commercial school was provided by the Leipzig official authorities, which pledged to pay 3 and 5 thousand marks over a two-year period [6. P. 14]. The commercial school main tasks were: - to provide general and special commercial education to students who are ready to engage in commercial activities in the future; - to provide appropriate theoretical and practical training for young people willing to teach in commercial schools; - to take care of providing other professions to people who need them on commercial issues (for example, lawyers preparing for service in consulates, chambers of commerce, etc.). Another equally famous non-state educational institution was the Higher Commercial School, created in Berlin at the beginning of the 20th century. This private educational institution was characterized by the fact that it existed only on financial resources and investments of merchants and did not have the (financial) support of the Ministry of Trade and Industry. The curriculum content was mostly business sciences: accounting, financial and commercial computing. In addition, in the curriculum content, a large place was given to theoretical subjects that increased the knowledge amount needed for commercial sphere (economic geography, political economy, history and jurisprudence, natural sciences, foreign languages). Thus, a modern system of non-state higher education begins to take shape starting from the XVIII century in Western Europe Unlike in Europe, the history of American education dates back to the 17th century due to historical background (the first English settlement was founded in 1620, Plymouth colony). One of the main characteristic features of private education birth in the United States was that, in socio-economic terms, plantation slavery (and not a feudal system) was established in the country, in connection with vast land areas. The American educational segment formation was greatly influenced by the traditions and experience of the English education system (since in this historical period the United States was a colony of England), which was taken as a basis. Thus, the schools prevalence with identical curricula and learning process, as in the UK educational institutions, is obvious. As a rule, schools functioned on material rewards from public and subsidies from local administrative authorities, that is, by their legal status, they were private. As in Great Britain, schools in the United States were under the clergy dogma. However, the church influence on the United States educational system lasted for just over 50 years, in contrast to Western European countries, and especially Great Britain, where the clergymen control continued for a long time. The US education system's genesis showed that Samuel Phillips, who founded one of the oldest private academies in America, Phillips Academy, became the founder of the non-state education sector formation in the United States, which became famous for its outstanding graduates. When organizing the educational process, the Americans copied the English education system, but did not reach European educational institutions level, the history of which dates back to the 12th - 13 th centuries. The United States agricultural orientation, as one of the most important economy segments of the colonial period, had a huge impact on the educational system's formation and development. Almost all curricula of academic disciplines in educational institutions were of a practical nature and were directly related to the development of the state agrarian complex [7]. This specific nature of training was due to the need for practical skills and abilities throughout the country and is associated with the geographical mobility of the population. It is here, in our opinion, that it is appropriate to talk about the origins of the professional mobility emergence. At the end of the 18th century. significant changes are taking place in the US educational system. Having achieved independence, the North American states felt the need for a large number of specialists capable of organizing production, meeting the needs of health care and education. The US educational segment's genesis dates back to 1636, when the first American college, known today as Harvard University, was founded. It should be noted that the education history of the United States is one of the most recent, since in 1620 (the time the first pilgrims' arrival in America), many universities had already been created and successfully operated in Europe and the Middle East. So, for example, the Al-Azhar University (Egypt) was founded in the XI century, a little later the university was opened in Bologna (Italy), in Paris and in England (Oxford and Cambridge universities). The intensive development of industrial production served as a catalyst for changing the directions of training specialists in private educational institutions. The government has set an orientation towards staffing the technical and agricultural sectors. This circumstance was a key incentive for the private college's transformation into universities with extensive areas of training and a developed research base. In fact, this can be considered the formation's starting point of well-known American private universities. The state legislation and their economic situation's difference led to the fact that the attitude towards the American education system during the described period was significantly different. However, state leaders, recognizing the importance of education, began to pay attention to the education system's problems. Thus, the non-governmental sector of higher education in the United States has developed for several reasons, which can be formulated as follows: - the state could not satisfy the growing e population's educational needs, and the private sector of higher education sought to provide education to everyone; - the non-state sector of higher education was the first to recognize the labor markets challenges and restructure the education content in accordance with the society needs (the need for education in a highly specialized sphere), in this regard, the development and application of new teaching methods took place [8]; - large monopolies and individuals' financial support (many wealthy families took an active part not only in the development of the state economic segment, but also in the educational sphere) [9; 10]. For example, at the end of the 19th century, the Rockefeller family donated a huge amount to a Chicago university's development; with the financial resources of businessman D. Hopkins, Hopkins University is opened in Baltimore - for a long time it was considered the largest research center and served as a model for modern research universities); - a characteristic trend of the non-state higher education historical development in the United States is a steady increase in the proportion of women in the student body. The historical conditions of human capital's formation in the non-state sector of higher education abroad are the following: 1) private education's formation and development in European countries in the Middle Ages is closely related to the cities emergence and trade development. During the wounded Middle Ages, the church influenced the private education development, most of the private educational institutions were created at monasteries; 2) private sector of education's stable position and its intensive development in European countries is explained by the state minimal interference in the private schools activities; 3) private universities were the first to recognize the labor market's challenges and restructure the education content in accordance with the society needs, including the education content in a highly specialized sphere; 4) non-state sector of higher education, being an innovation source, has played a significant role in the history of education development in foreign countries; 5) state's legislative support of the non-state sector of higher education development; 6) large monopolies' financial support of the non-state sector of higher education.

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