Liberalism, socialism, or communitarianism: Contradictions of Rousseau’s social contract

This article analyzes the concepts of freedom, equality, and justice within the framework of Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s social contract theory. The author notes that Rousseau occupies a unique place in the history of political thought and remains a figure of ongoing debate. The analysis reveals internal contradictions within Rousseau’s fundamental principles, which create a doctrinal identity problem and complicate its classification within traditional ideological frameworks. The article aims to examine Rousseau’s key concepts and assess whether he can legitimately be considered a precursor to socialist ideology. To this end, it compares Rousseau’s views with those of early socialist thinkers - such as Saint-Simon, Fourier, Owen, Proudhon, and Babeuf - highlighting both parallels and divergences in their interpretations of core ideas. Rousseau distinguishes between natural, civil, and moral freedom, arguing that true liberty is realized only through collective participation in social life and submission to the general will. His conception of equality is similarly nuanced: while natural equality is inherently benign, social (or moral) inequality arises from private property and political power, which Rousseau saw as destroying natural human bonds and fostering injustice. Although he criticizes private property as a source of inequality and a necessary evil, Rousseau, unlike more radical socialists, does not advocate for its immediate abolition. Nevertheless, his ideas on collectivism and justice significantly influenced later socialist thought. Importantly, for Rousseau, equality pertains primarily to equal participation in political life rather than to the equal distribution of material goods. Special attention is given to Rousseau’s concepts of popular sovereignty and the general will. For him, popular sovereignty forms the foundation of legitimate authority; however, its practical implementation faces considerable difficulties. Popular sovereignty may be supplanted by state sovereignty, risking despotism or the tyranny of the majority, while in reality, power can easily devolve to a narrow elite rather than remaining with the people as a whole. The author points out that Rousseau viewed the social contract as a mechanism for creating a just state in which the individual submits to the collective for the common good. Yet, as Proudhon later argued, the social contract can also be interpreted as a means of organizing society without state or authority - based instead on principles of personal freedom, reciprocity, and anarchy. This tension relates to the distinction between positive freedom (participation in the collective will) and negative freedom (freedom from interference). Rousseau’s emphasis on positive freedom places him at a distance from anarchist thought. In conclusion, the article argues that Rousseau’s political theory incorporates elements of both liberalism and socialism but cannot be reduced to either tradition. His social contract theory may instead be viewed as a precursor to communitarianism, given its emphasis on collective identity, a traditional Aristotelian conception of justice, and the value of active participation in communal life. The authors declare no conflicts of interests.

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